Introduction
I would like to start by taking a few steps back and take a look at the evolution of humanity in the last ten thousand years, and by extension, the role of education in the progress of our species.
There is no question that the development of language was, and still is, instrumental to learning. There is evidence that language adapted as our needs for complex communication, and thus information sharing, increased, which in turn made complex language a competitive trait that would define our species (Kurzesagt, 2016).((Kurzgesagt. (2016). What Happened Before History? Human Origins [Video]. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGiQaabX3_o)) This ability to share information easily allowed humans to learn from each other socially (in a socially constructivist way) instead of having to experience things first-hand (behaviorist approach).
At first, humans needed to pass on knowledge that was directly related to their immediate survival, but as societies’ needs called for ever more specialized roles, sharing knowledge allowed for more sophistication. With the invention of writing, humans were finally able to record information and share it with wider audiences and later generations in increasingly more efficient and reliable ways. Human settlements eventually grew larger and larger to become cities and the management of expert knowledge became more evident with the first attempts at collecting knowledge in the form of libraries, and extending it, with the first academies. Humans thus started becoming more concerned about theories and methods of instructions rather than just mere knowledge collection (see Plato’s academy). In parallel to this, apprenticeships (an approach sharing traits of PBL, service learning, and constructivism, all rolled into one) continued filling a need for expertise knowledge to be passed on to others as the complexity of roles that individuals were expected to fill increased. This shift to a written record of knowledge along with a systematic education of individuals eventually led to technological breakthroughs that only served to further increase the specialized nature of our roles as individuals, in turn contributing to more technological and societal breakthroughs which materialized in the form of a compulsory secondary education, post-secondary education, the invention of the printing press, textbooks, and the rise of the digital world. Although my attempt at explaining the relationship between learning and progress may be simplistic, the role of learning can be seen as seeing a shift from individual need for survival, to group survival, to community competition with the rise of farming and animal husbandry, and culminating with global workforce training, research, and “patriotic education”.
Societies where these opportunities to share knowledge did not materialize failed to see the same level of progress (see aboriginal tribes). It could be theorized that a lack of competition would lead to lower needs of specialization and innovation leading to a lower need for complex instruction.
Rise of the learning theories
Today, societies recognize the value of education as a gateway to progress and prosperity. Looking back, it is clear that we have come a long way since our first attempts at societal progress. But it is only until very recently, that we started studying how we learn, and how we can improve learning. These learning theories are attempts at understanding how and why learning happens and use that understanding to advise how we deliver knowledge as instructors for maximum effect and efficiency. The need for these theories has been increasing as societies grow ever more complex and evolve, or sometimes even radically transform, at an increasing pace, requiring new lifelong approaches that will test the limits of what humans are capable of in terms of learning and role specialization.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a learning theory that came to prominence in the late 19th century, and which asserts that learning is a process where an individual’s behavior is shaped and reinforced by a given stimulus in the environment. Behaviorists argue that the mind is a black box that cannot be understood reliably, and that the only way to accurately understand behavior is to scientifically record measurable responses to stimuli in test subjects such as dogs or mice (McLeod, 2018a).((Mcleod, S. A. (2018, October 08). Pavlov’s Dogs. Simply Psychology. Retrieved February 18, 2023, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html)) In the middle of the 20th century, behaviorism branched out into classical conditioning, the original theory, and operant conditioning which introduced the notion that operant behavior can be modified by positive and negative reinforcement or punishment (McLeod, 2018b).((Mcleod, S. A. (2018, October 08). Skinner – Operant Conditioning. Simply Psychology. Retrieved February 18, 2023, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html))
Constructivism
Constructivism is a learning theory that asserts that learning is an active process that builds upon prior knowledge or experience, and through interaction with the environment and other individuals (Mcleod, 2018c).((Mcleod, S. A. (2018, June 6). Jean Piaget’s theory and stages of cognitive development. Simply Psychology. Retrieved February 19, 2023, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html)) It assumes that learners are intrinsically motivated and want to learn. In the case of classical constructivism, it is theorized that young learners move between stages of development as they grow up, and that they are only capable of learning a given concept once they reach the right stage. Social constructivism focuses on the zone of proximal development which is the phase where a learner is able to progress to a new stage only with the help of a mentor (Mcleod, 2022d).((Mcleod, S. A. (2022, May 5). Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory. Simply Psychology. Retrieved February 19, 2023, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html))
Cognitivism
Cognitivism builds upon constructivism in that it acknowledges the presence of prior knowledge, and the need to build upon it. As with social constructivism, social cognitivism also highlights the importance of the social factor in learning (McLeod, 2016).((Mcleod, S. A. (2016e). Bandura—Social Learning Theory. Simply Psychology. Retrieved 19 February 2023, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html))
Where cognitivism departs from earlier theories is by rejecting the idea that the mind is just a black box that cannot be studied or understood (McLeod, 2016e, Mediational Processes). It also disapproves of the use of external stimuli to motivate learners and argues that learning materials must be made more appealing to attract learner’s attention. According to the cognitive learning theory, learning requires cognition which involves a number of complex processes such as attention and perception. Learning occurs when information is encoded and enters our long-term memory (Mindtools, 2014, Information Processing Model).((Mindtools. (2014). Cognitive Load Theory: Making Learning More Effective. MindTools.com. https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/cognitive-load-theory.htm))
However, learning can be disrupted if a learner’s cognitive load exceeds his or her capacity. This can be remedied by decreasing the cognitive load using Mayer’s principles (Wiley University Services. (2016, July 19).((Wiley University Services. (2016, July 19). Principles of Multimedia Learning. Center for Teaching and Learning | Wiley Education Services. https://ctl.wiley.com/principles-of-multimedia-learning/))
Connectivism
Connectivism is a new learning method that is not yet universally accepted as a learning theory. It came to prominence with the rise of the internet and personal computers which made e-learning and blended or flipped learning solutions possible. Under this model of learning, learners form networks where knowledge is discovered online and shared with the networks (UOC, 2010).((OUC – Open University of Catalonia. (2010). George Siemens – Connectivism: Socializing Open Learning [Video]. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rqL_lsogeNU)) Learners then use this content to construct knowledge and increase their understanding of the subject matter. Unlike in a cognitivist model where teachers would act as the disseminators of knowledge and focus on the quality of the learning materials, connectivists are mainly concerned with ensuring that the information shared in networks is current, relevant, and accurate which can actually be quite time consuming.
Andragogy
Andragogy is a method of learning which focuses on adult education as opposed to child education. According to Knowles, adults have different learning preferences compared to children mostly because they are self-motivated (Pappas, 2013, Knowles’ 5 Assumptions).((Pappas, C. (2013). The Adult Learning Theory – Andragogy – of Malcolm Knowles. eLearningIndustry.com. Retrieved 19 February 2023, from https://elearningindustry.com/the-adult-learning-theory-andragogy-of-malcolm-knowles))
Combining learning theories
I have realized that I have already made use of all of these approaches in my class without having to study them. No doubt, this stems from constructivism where I observed others, but also due to having used a problem-solving approach to teaching, where I tested new things and made improvements based on the results I got. Assessing and evaluation my students as well as their learning experiences allowed me to build upon previous iterations of my lessons to improve upon them.
In my language classes, I believe it is possible, although time consuming and not always practical, to make course units flexible by making use of all learning theories were based upon the student, group, culture, or level of mastery, different concepts from different learning theories may be used.
A good example of a combined use of learning theories would be my high school ESL units that I have built over the years. As it happens, each unit combines concepts from every learning theory covered in this portfolio. Please read my final reflection for more details about the way that I combine these theories.
Why do instructional designers need to know learning theories and models?
Learning theories represent the current understanding of the learning process. These theories and models which build upon the work of many researchers and theorists over centuries, can inform instructional designers when designing and developing courses, and implementing the said courses, in a way that is realistic, and compatible with learners needs (Cohen, D. 2021)((Cohen, D. (2021). Adult Learning Theories Every Instructional Designer Must Know. Shiftelearning.com. Retrieved February 19, 2023, from https://www.shiftelearning.com/blog/adult-learning-theories-instructional-design)) Having an understanding of these learning theories provides a foundation of learning solutions that IDs can draw from based on their circumstances.
Closing thoughts
Although I tried to compare the theories in this portfolio as per the LDT100x course requirements, I did stumble upon some alternative categorizations of the learning theories that I studied in this course. Some of these variations appear to stem from differences between the fields of education and psychology while others may be the result of recent efforts to re-categorize these theories into a more coherent whole. See the following links for more information:
- Simply Psychology (click on theories): https://www.simplypsychology.org/
- History of Learning Theories: http://kb.edu.hku.hk/index.php?id=5